Forged in Revolution: The Life and Legacy of Lenin

On 22 April 1870, Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov was born into a middle-class family in Simbirsk (now Ulyanovsk), Russia. His family had ascended from serfdom thanks to his uncle, who funded his father Ilya's education. Ilya became a prominent figure in the push for public education, and his passion for learning and political engagement was passed on to young Vladimir.

However, tragedy struck in 1887 when Vladimir's brother Aleksandr was executed for his involvement in a failed assassination attempt on Tsar Alexander III. This event profoundly affected Lenin and steered him towards radical politics.

Lenin enrolled at Kazan University but was soon expelled for student activism. During this period, he discovered the works of Karl Marx, becoming one of the first Marxists in Russia. After two years in exile, Lenin passed his law exams externally and began practising law in Samara. However, he soon shifted his focus entirely to revolutionary politics.

By the end of the century, Lenin had become a member of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP). He also wrote prolifically about revolution, with What Is to Be Done? (1902) being widely circulated among Russia’s working classes. The years 1900–1903 proved to be some of the most defining of Lenin’s life. This seemingly short period saw the formation of his own political faction.

During the Second Congress of the RSDLP in 1903, the party split into Lenin’s Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. Lenin explained the split in One Step Forward, Two Steps Back – a reply to Rosa Luxemburg. He argued that the division was not only about the degree of centralisation in revolutionary organisations, but more fundamentally about whether a committed minority should lead communist parties. This ideological division would go on to define the future of socialist thought globally, as Lenin’s ideas evolved into a distinct branch: Leninism.

The year 1905 was disastrous for the Russian state and its people. The entire nation rose in revolt against the Tsar. On 9 January (Julian calendar), Father Georgi Gapon led a peaceful march to deliver a petition, only to be met with gunfire — sparking a nationwide insurgency. During the revolution, the first workers’ councils, or Soviets, were formed to organise strikes and demonstrations. While this revolution failed to topple the Tsar, it did result in the October Manifesto, which established a legislative assembly, the Duma.

Over the following 11 years, Lenin continued writing and debating with other communist factions. In 1912, the RSDLP officially split, with the Bolsheviks taking control of the party.

Lenin’s defining moment came in 1917. The First World War had devastated Russia’s economy and food supply. International Women’s Day sparked the February Revolution, which toppled the Tsarist regime in just eight days, ending over 300 years of Romanov rule. Over the ensuing months, the Provisional Government struggled to maintain control. As the summer progressed, tensions grew between the Soviets and the government. The so-called "July Days" — an attempted uprising by Bolshevik supporters — almost destroyed the party after the failure to seize the Winter Palace.

The July Days led to a counter-coup by the conservative General Kornilov, which ironically helped the Bolsheviks regain favour as defenders of Petrograd (formerly St Petersburg). This helped them become the majority in both the Petrograd and Moscow Soviets. Lenin, meanwhile, worked tirelessly on radical new policies to win support from striking workers, rebellious peasants, and other socialist groups. However, it could be argued that Lenin’s policies were simply declared at a moment when much of the population had grown so disillusioned with the Provisional Government that they were willing to back a radical alternative.

By October, the Provisional Government was in total disarray and the Soviets had become the dominant political force. Army units once loyal to the government had either mutinied or deserted. Contrary to later Soviet propaganda, the October Revolution was not a dramatic or violent affair — Red Guard units occupied government buildings with minimal resistance, with the only fighting occurring at the Winter Palace, where the last defenders surrendered.

The consolidation of Bolshevik power outraged not only conservatives but also other socialist groups. The Russian Civil War had begun. While many factions fought for control, the Bolsheviks ultimately emerged victorious — though at great cost. Lenin’s post-revolution communist reforms were soon rolled back in favour of the New Economic Policy (NEP), a controversial set of measures that introduced elements of state capitalism. Lenin’s leftist critics have since regarded this as a betrayal of the revolution.

In 1922, Lenin suffered a stroke that forced him to withdraw from active leadership. His health declined until his death in 1924. During the final two years of his life, he witnessed a bitter struggle for power within the Communist Party. Joseph Stalin ultimately prevailed, ruling the Soviet Union as an autocrat until 1953. One can only speculate how the Soviet Union might have evolved had another revolutionary, such as Leon Trotsky or Nikolai Bukharin, succeeded Lenin and lent their name to an alternative ideology alongside Leninism.

The works of Lenin continue to influence political thought today. Many revolutionaries, such as Fidel Castro and Ho Chi Minh, identified as Marxist-Leninists. In cities across former Eastern Bloc nations and present-day communist states, statues and artworks of Marx and Lenin still stand side by side, united in belief long after their deaths.

The life of Lenin defies easy summary, as the sheer volume of literature surrounding him attests.

Bibliography

Dutt, Violet, Lenin: A Biography, trans. by Violet Dutt (London: Lawrence & Wishart Ltd, 1955)

Kenez, Peter, A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to Its Legacy, 3rd edn (Santa Cruz: Cambridge University Press, 2017)

Lenin, V. I., One Step Forward, Two Steps Back – Reply to Rosa Luxemburg, in Revolution, Democracy, Socialism: Selected Writings of V. I. Lenin, ed. by Paul Le Blanc (London: Pluto Press, 2008)

Lenin, V. I., Revolution, Democracy, Socialism: Selected Writings of V. I. Lenin, ed. by Paul Le Blanc (London: Pluto Press, 2008)

Trotsky, Leon, On Lenin: Notes Towards a Biography, trans. by Tamara Deutscher (London: George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd, 1971)

Trotsky, Leon, The Young Lenin, trans. by Max Eastman, ed. by Maurice Friedberg (London: Penguin Books, 1972)

Williams, Beryl, Lenin: Profiles in Power (London: Longman, 2000)